"Many basic questions surround the Reformation. What were its causes? Was it precipitated by the Zeitgeist prevailing in Europe, so that there would have been a religious upheaval even if Luther or Zwingli had died in their cradles? Was the Reformation an authentically religious phenomenon, or the result of certain political, social, or economic developments? Was it 'medievil' or 'modern' in its orientation? What was the teaching of the Reformers? What was the significance of the Reformation? The measure of scholarly agreement with respect to these questions differs; far from offering definitive answers, we can here only call attention to their persistent presence.... "When the reformers who had first ventured a new interpretation of the gospel had passed from the scene, the question which had haunted the Reformation from its very inception--where is truth?--was still contested by the proponents of the old and the new faith. But one fact was beyond dispute: Western Christendom was tragically divided...into no less than five [religious factions]....Though these divisions were the result of intense religious conviction, they could not help but lessen the intensity of religious belief in Europe. The Reformation of the sixteenth century was the last period in the history of Western civilization when men were preoccupied with religion, argued it, fought and even died for it. Its consequences are still with us." --Hans J. Hillerbrand

I. The German Reformation

1. Martin Luther: Preface to the first volume of Latin writings (1545)

In the pursuit of his academic responsibilities at Wittenberg Luther formulated a new theology which, since it diverged from the medieval theological consensus, eventually led to the Reformation. The starting point of this new theology was a basic insight into the nature of biblical religion. Though there is some uncertainty about the exact date of this insight, Luther surely had come to it well before the outbreak of the indulgences controversy in 1517. Luther commented on his theological development on several occasions, notably in the year before his death, when he wrote the Preface to the first volumeof his Latin writings then in the process of publication.

The setting of Luther's recollection is a description of the res indulgentiara , the indulgences affair, to point out to the reader how the Reformation began. Luther meant to show both how deeply embedded he was in papal religion and also what brought him theological deliverance. Luther described his own spiritual state at the time, the nature of his problem, and his solution-a new understanding of the notion of "the righteousness of God." Faced with an exegetical problem, he found an exegetical answer.

LITERATURE

U. Saarnivaara, Luther Discovers the Gospel (St. Louis, 1950).

Meanwhile, I had already during that year returned to interpret the Psalter anew. I had confidence in the fact that I was more skilful, after I had lectured in the university on St. Paul's epistles to the Romans, to the Galatians, and the one to the Hebrews. I had indeed been captivated with an extraordinary ardor for understanding Paul in the Epistle to the Romans. But up till then it was not the cold blood about the heart, but a single word in chapter 1 [ : 17 ] , "In it the righteousness of God is revealed," that had stood in my way. For I hated that word "righteousness of God," which, according to the use and custom of all the teachers, I had been taught to understand philosophically regarding the formal or active righteousness, as they called it, with which God is righteous and punishes the unrighteous sinner.

Though I lived as a monk without reproach, I felt that I was a sinner before God with an extremely disturbed conscience. I could not believe that He was placated by my satisfaction. I did not love, yes, I hated the righteous God who punishes sinners, and secretly, if not blasphemously, certainly murmuring greatly, I was angry with God, and said, "As if, indeed, it is not enough, that miserable sinners, eternally lost through original sin, are crushed by every kind of calamity by the law of the decalogue, without having God add pain to pain by the gospel and also by the gospel threatening us with his righteousness and wrath!" Thus I raged with a fierce and troubled conscience. Nevertheless, I beat importunately upon Paul at that place, most ardently desiring to know what St. Paul wanted.

At last, by the mercy of God, meditating day and night, I gave heed to the context of the words, namely, "In it the righteousness of God is revealed, as it is written, `He who through faith is righteous shall live.' " There I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that by which the righteous lives by a gift of God, namely by faith. And this is the meaning: the righteousness of God is revealed by the gospel, namely, the passive righteousness with which merciful God justifies us by faith, as it is written, "He who through faith is righteous shall live." Here I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates. There a totally other face of the entire Scripture showed itself to me. Thereupon I ran through the Scriptures from memory. I also found in other terms an analogy, as, the work of God, that is, what God does in us, the power of God, with which He, makes us strong, the wisdom of God, with which He makes us wise, the strength of God, the salvation of God, the glory of God.

And I extolled my sweetest word with a love as great as the hatred with which I had before hated the word "righteousness of God." Thus that place in Paul was for me truly the gate to paradise. Later I read Augustine's The Spirit and the Letter , where contrary to hope I found that he, too, interpreted God's righteousness in a similar way, as the righteousness with which God clothes us when He justifies us. Although this was heretofore said imperfectly and he did not explain all things concerning imputation clearly, it nevertheless was pleasing that God's righteousness with which we are justified was taught.

2.Martin Luther: The Freedom of a Christian Man (1520)

This pamphlet was one of the three treatises Luther wrote in 1520, the other two being the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and the Open Letter to the Christian Nobility , and is an incisive exposition of his thought. Luther wrote the tract in October of the year when there was great uncertainty about papal action against him. Published in both German and Latin, it quickly became popular and its title offered a slogan that was widely echoed.

Its theme was that of Christian freedom, but in a broader sense it delineated the principles of Luther's program of ecclesiastical reform. The other two tracts of the year had sought to do the same-the Open Letter by demanding a reform in the structure of the church, the Babylonian Captivity by questioning Catholic sacramental teaching. The pamphlet on Christian freedom discussed the principles of the new life in Christ as it grew out of a new understanding of the nature of the Christian gospel. What must a Christian do? On the basis of the "righteousness of faith," the cornerstone of this new gospel, Luther repudiated the rigidity of Catholic morality and offered his own reconstruction. The treatise opened with the assertion that "a Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none," only bound to his 4 neighbor in love. Luther repudiated what might be called the Aristotelian notion that good works make a good man and insisted a good man does good works, and does so freely and without legal regimentation. The burden of Luther's tract was to show how a vibrant and dynamic faith makes this possible. A slightly condensed version of the entire tract is reprinted below.

LITERATURE

G. W. Forell, Faith Active in Love (New York, I954).

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Excerpted from Protestant Reformati by Hans J. Hillerbrand Copyright © 2003 by Hans J. Hillerbrand
Excerpted by permission. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.